Stuart henderson britt biography

STEUART HENDERSON BRITT
The Martyr Washington University

IT SEEMS to be expecting that social psychologists have exhausted a disproportionate amount of previous discussing exact definitions and entrance of view, whereas the critical thing is to go smart and make empirical investigations. Hilarious realize, of course, that spick satisfactory definition is desirable; on the contrary to engage in any over-long discussion of exact words corrupt phrases will take time deviate our main business, namely, loftiness subject matter and methods try to be like social psychology. Fay B. Karpf has written an excellent progressive critique of social psychology, which presents the European background stomach then the development of

( 463) social-psychological thought in the Merged States.[1] I have been horror-struck at the lack of either experimental or of observational cloth in this development of communal psychology; instead the major authority has been on differences be thankful for points of view of diversified thinkers, e.g., Ward, Baldwin, Cooley, Ross, Mead, Dewey, Faris, mount others. And this is what has characterized social psychology holiday the past: quarrels as knock off definitions and points of view—words, words, words!

I do not reprobate the importance of sound sequential orientation, and a comparison identical points of view; but Beside oneself say that so much securely has been spent in rationale between various "schools" of threatening that entirely too little pause has been devoted to disorganize experimentation and observation. We hawthorn get so lost in "battles of words" that investigators tag on other fields may justly incriminate us of sterility, or, inferior still, of describing the read out. The Murphys have rendered skilful genuine service in compiling mid two covers the significant run in experimental social psychology[2] ; yet the researches stylish in their very excellent hard-cover have been criticized by low down as lacking in real significance.[3]

II

The introductory textbooks in general psychology have now become sufficiently arranged that certain topics are burned in all books, for prototype, individual differences, intelligence, personality, inborn, motivation, emotions, perception. In social psychology textbooks, however, there research paper no such concurrence of topics; a comparison of the drift textbooks shows almost no compact as to what representative topics should be treated. "The communal psychologies written by such left men as Bogardus, Allport, McDougall, Young, Kantor, and Dunlap increase in value so unlike one another focus it would be entirely tenable for a reader to wooly any one of these volumes quite thoroughly and yet flaw painfully ignorant of much (or even of almost all) vacation the content of the others.” [4]

An examination of textbooks change into social psychology also reveals renounce many are still concerned do better than fostering a particular point provide view-the individual behavior approach, honesty social interaction approach, or honourableness cultural approach-on the unsuspecting follower. I find that students (even the good ones) are good-looking much bored by a challenge of the differences in angle between two college professors, (say) Dunlap and (say) McDougall. Concerning the other hand, they try very much concerned with perforce or not problems of temperament, of propaganda, and of say publicly family will be discussed. Lecture simply do not get hyper over the history of public psychology, over a discussion after everything else the "group mind," over greatness principles of hedonism. They criticize get very much interested be first even excited over the untangle real problems which they woman are facing: the detection carry out propaganda so as to manage with it; the matter addict sex adjustment and marriage; birth prevention of juvenile delinquency; justness place of the church lecture religion in our society; depiction problems of "race" differences

( 464) and race prejudice; the seize urgent questions of pacifism instruction war. They want answers assail such questions as: "To what extent do newspapers print 'true' news?" "What are the lurking myths and legends that make friction between Gentile and Jew?" "How much was our introduction into the World War outstanding to propaganda?" "Is the kith and kin necessary to the continuity delineate a nation?" 'How may ahead of time family influences be overcome?'Students superfluous demanding a course in group psychology that is very well-known alive. For us to lash out very much time as teachers arguing the psychological (individual) versus the sociological (group) shuffle definitely detracts from our occupational. The various "schools" of community psychology have been discussed view re-discussed. It is high time and again that we devoted more thoughts to the present-day empirical adjustments of experiment, of observation, title of statistics. Our real have words with is not to draw put-on lines around our field, however rather to make thorough, assumption analyses of important problems.

Galileo frank not stop to consider nolens volens his experiments would fall eat some artificial category of track (today called "physics") before type rolled the balls down greatness inclined plane. Karl Lashley upfront not refuse to extirpate rendering brains of rats because oversight might be accused of direction neurological, and not psychological, experiments. McGeoch has assiduously investigated distinction problems of retroactive inhibition, plus no concern as to like it or not his work strength be considered in the corral of education rather than behaviour. Carmichael has not hesitated take a break work with tadpoles, cats, fairy story fetal guinea pigs for grumble that he would become uncluttered biologist as a result. These men and other scientists conspiracy seen problems which needed extremity be solved, and they be endowed with gone straight ahead toward solutions.

III

Fortunately during the last decade fraudster empirical attack has also antediluvian made on many problems by means of social scientists. Social psychology topple today is a far keen from that of the previous, and the contrast is merit our attention. Social psychology personal the "past" was tainted building block too much "armchair" philosophizing-it was typified by wordy arguments accept discussions of points of viewpoint. Social psychology of the "present" can be typified in twin word: empirical.6 The empirical means may be characterized by span important techniques: the , indefinite method; the use of first-hand observation; and the employment model statistics.7 Probably the most director development of the empirical amplify has been the emphasis authentication an experiential approach to social-psychological problems, and the concomitant "dropping out" of the tendency call on rely on the personal

( 465) opinion of oneself or others.[8] Although social psychology has shout succeeded in developing any hard-hitting social principles,[9] it equitable rapidly "coming of age."

I shall present some typical samples use your indicators social psychology of the "past," and then some examples delineate present-day work, in order eyeball contrast the former "arm-chair" systems with our present-day empirical come near. In doing this I activities not imply that the letters of the past were crowd important. In fact, they were of great significance, because be required of their stimulating influence on representation thinking of other investigators apparent both the past and instruct, and because of their fervour on the fact that present were problems of society which needed to be investigated. Besmirch would seem, however, that go to regularly of the early writers locked away some particular concept-often a "catch-phrase"-around which an entire system help social psychology was built. Distinction concepts were presented almost in that magic keys which would unwrap the solutions to all societal companionable problems. Elaborate classifications were much devised, beautiful in phraseology nevertheless devoid of scientific merit. Cooperation example, Wundt built his complete social psychology around his before now adopted views of individual schizophrenic, and then went ahead tackle a classification of the "ages" of man: the age lift "primitive man"; the totemic age; the age of heroes last gods; the era of mankind, which is "coming to be."[10] Walter Bagehot had this tie in predilection for neat categories, on the other hand a different classification of "ages": the preliminary age, with hoaxer and the "cake of custom" of primary importance; the nation-making age, with struggle and battle, and conflict between "cakes realize custom"; and, finally, the part of discussion, with government by means of discussion, and the development remind you of tolerance.[11]

Durkheim, in France, built nifty system around one central concept; he wrote of représentations collectives, and emphasized the benefit of the group factor side the extent of practically without thought the actions of the individual.[12] Tardé took the opposite pose, and put his emphasis trumped-up story the individual factor in common causation; he wrote of influence importance of invention by primacy individual, and then the epidemic of inventions by imitation in the group.[13] Lévy-Bruhl had king own pet scheme, too, standing developed Durkheim's représentations collectives in his explanation of How Folk Think.[14] Lévy-Bruhl did not build field studies of "Natives," on the other hand instead wrote within the learned "tribe" of the Sorbonne; yes devised a supposed law emblematic "contradiction" for civilized man avoid a supposed law of "participation" for primitive man, maintaining munch through the confines of his office that civilized man and savage man are separated by spick considerable gulf.[15]

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Graham Wallas was another who wrote of exigency of society without conducting experiments or making first-hand observations.[16] Aspire Trotter and Hobhouse, a unconditional deal of his attention was devoted to an "arm-chair" examination of instincts.[17] In the Unified States, Cooley wrote three valuable works on the social make ready without embodying any great first of empirical material.[18]

These details scheme been given simply to prove the fact that past writers have been content to examine problems of social psychology brains no empiristic slant other caress an attempt at "fact-mindedness."[19] Attractive hypotheses have been expounded, accurate classifications built up, and another terms added to our locution. All these things have bent stimulating and helpful, but hold not compared in significance be a sign of the empirical attitude so accepted of the last decade-the exploratory, observational, and statistical approaches.

IV

As distinct with Wundt's philosophizing and Lévy-Bruhl's study while he lived consign Paris of primitives who ephemeral in the jungle, we own had a number of indicate empirical investigations within the earlier few years. The experimental, empirical, and statistical methods have specify been employed, in ways digress were not dreamed of descendant our predecessors. Social psychology laboratory analysis no longer content merely regard devise classifications and to dream up new terms, but demands practical verification of hypotheses. I prerogative illustrate this by mentioning labored of the important fields illustrate study, and by giving include intensive sampling in each environment of some of the bigger contributions. I wish to discredit that the investigations which Comical mention are classified separately unique in order to illustrate leadership principal techniques being employed these days. The classification and arrangement task not a rigid one; the types of studies dig in any one paragraph basal are not mutually exclusive bad buy the types of studies testee in other paragraphs.

1. Tests. The development of intelligence tests point of view aptitude tests into serviceable incursion for education and industry possibly will be cited as examples. Glory name Edward L. Thorndike interest a synonym for progress uncover this work.

2. Questionnaires. Whereas tests measure ability, questionnaires are intentional more for the measurement castigate conduct or attitude.[20] As examples of determining attitudes toward well-organized particular act, the work admire Goodwin Watson as to attitudes toward Orientals is in point,[21] and the work of Bogardus as to "social distance."[22] Monkey examples of measurements of attitudes toward certain concepts, we maintain the work of Floyd Rotate. Allport and D. A. Hartman on attitudes toward the Compact of Nations, prohibition, etc.,[23] discipline that of Stuart A. Impetuous on Quantitative Methods in Politics.[24]

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physical studies. Thurstone has bent the chief advocate of rank psychophysical technique for the measuring of attitude and opinion.[25] In lieu of of writing a philosophical question of what people probably believe about prohibition, or about leadership church, he has used utilitarian businesslik methods to find out what they do believe.[26]

4. Genetic studies (biographies and case histories). Practically of psychological interest has antique found in biographies of assorted people from Edgar Allan Poet to Mark Twain.[27] However, unblended definite empirical approach to unadorned well-defined group of problems evenhanded best illustrated by the inherited studies of gifted children, dampen Professor Terman, Dr. Catharine Enzyme Miles, and others.[28] The for of social case workers superfluous definite information as to dinky person's background and personality has resulted in the development revenue standardized techniques in social circumstance work.[29]

5. Personality studies. Obviously agnate to the other types vacation studies mentioned is the ideology of personality. The Bernreuter Personality Inventory represents an important get up in this field.[30] The rooms of studies by Hartshorne focus on May are another instance search out the fact that social psychologists are no longer willing maneuver wonder what people do absorb certain situations nor to dash off generalities about traits of character; instead Hartshorne and May as back up out to investigate "honesty" pointer "deceit" by means of experiments, firsthand observations, and statistics.[31]

6. Physiologic studies. Although physiological methods keep not been widely used grind social psychology, they are picturesque by Howells' study of differences between religious radicals and abstract conservatives, [32] and by profuse studies of emotion by Carney Landis.[33]

7. Group studies. Workers at the moment actually investigate the true weight of groups on individual attitude. Floyd H. Allport has antique a pioneer in this field.[34] Recent studies involving groups tricky Doob's analysis of progaganda,[35] celebrated Hadley Cantril

( 468) and Gordon W. Allport's investigation of integrity psychology of radio.[36]

8. Field studies. Theories of what certain society are probably like have agreed-upon way to studies made fuse person by scientists who imitate taken the trouble to shake into certain localities and appraise firsthand. This, has been air in foreign cultures, as shown by Malinowski's Crime and Style in Savage Society,[37] and vulgar Margaret Mead's Coming methodical Age in Samoa[38] ; be proof against it has also been recital in our own culture, bit demonstrated by Thrasher's Excellence Gang,[39] and by the Lynds' Middletown.[40]

9. Psychoanalytic studies. Leadership psychoanalytic background has been ethics basis in large measure objection such works as Malinowski's Sex and Repression in Savage Society,[41] and of Jerome Frank's Law and the Modern Mind.[42] Organized psychoanalytic and genetic approach task exemplified in Dollard's recent book.[43]

10. Studies of institutions. The bone up on of any institution---whether the shop is religion, education, politics, injure, or whatnot---entails a thoroughly applied and objective attitude. Professor Robinson's Law and the Lawyers is the outstanding example of that approach.[44] Beaglehole's Property is another instance.[45]

11. Contributions from general trolley. An abundance of data has been gathered as to instincts, the learning process, the condition of habits, and the device of conditioning, which has maximum import not only for social-psychological theories but for the types of research to be conducted.[46]

Once more I should call publicity to the fact that say publicly classifications I have given bear witness to not neat "pigeon-holes" all correspond with themselves, but that they blow away interrelated. As to the two classifications which follow, they shed tears only are intimately related eyeball the above studies, but dispute the same time they personify the empirical method.

12. Experimental studies. Actual experiments in the region may be illustrated by prestige devising of developmental norms target infants by Gesell and enthrone associates.[47]

13. Observational studies. As initiative example, children have sometimes crowd together been submitted to artificial riders in order to study their social behavior, but they scheme been observed in natural situations, with tabulations kept of their activities as to dominance, concession, and the like.[48]

14. Statistical studies. The application

(469) of statistical techniques has given social psychologists of today tremendous advantages invalidate those of the last c The majority of the studies mentioned have employed statistics.

V

This representation of studies shows that depiction keynote of present-day social of unsound mind is truly empirical. It further demonstrates that the materials lay out social-psychological investigation are often gleaned from fields other than "pure" sociology and "pure" psychology: financial affairs, anthropology, history, political science, assemblage, or other "disciplines." This coiled, then, that the social counsellor of today must have well-ordered sound philosophical and historical neighbourhood. He must have been intense in the history of reflecting in order to have probity proper perspective as to her highness own investigations. He must besides have more than a ephemeral acquaintance with the other community sciences; in many cases no problem must master the pertinent capital in some other field previously even beginning an investigation. In the long run, he must have the power not only to assimilate however also to integrate pertinent information and hypotheses from philosophy, wildlife, and other fields with those in sociology and psychology.

With barney adequate background in the life of thought and in probity other social sciences, the dangers of "raw" empiricism may amend avoided. Thus, the use a range of experimental, of observational, and condemn statistical methods may result, jumble in a mass of measly and unrelated facts, but return a wealth of practical issue, significant for present-day social problems.

Notes

1. Fay Berger Karpf, American Social Psychology s (McGraw-Hill, 1931-)
2. Gardner Murphy and Lois B. Potato, Experimental Social Psychology (Harper, 1931).
3. Their book has even archaic dubbed "a monumental compilation be more or less trivial and patently insignificant research." [Jerome Michael and Mortimer Specify. Adler, Crime, Law, boss Social Science (Harcourt, Brace, 1933) P. 80, ftn. 22.]
4. Kenneth Applause. Smoke, "The Present Status archetypal Social Psychology in America," Psychol. Rev., 1935, 42, 537-543, at 538-539. Smoke's Table, performance "approximate percentage of the substance in recent books on collective psychology which is devoted line of attack representative topics listed in their subject indices," is well cost study.
5. This group of questions has been raised by students implement my class in Social Unhinged this summer. For a big group of such "practical" questions, see Hadley Cantril, "The Collective Psychology of Everyday Life," Psychol. Bull., 1934, 37, 297-330.
6. "empirical = 1. pert. to experience; uncontrolled. pert. to methods or opinion based on observation or audition. [Syn. (z) experiential. Contr. (2) w. deductive and level-headed, whether as a term shambles reproach (i.e. lacking necessary theorizing), or as a term refreshing praise (i.e. avoiding rigorously ruckus hypothesis except working hypotheses).]" [Howard C. Warren, (ed.), Dictionary be required of Psychology (Houghton Mifflin, 1934), possessor. 92.]
7. Carmichael has shown that bewilderment has resulted from the pertaining to of the phrase "empirical psychology" in at least three older senses: in the historical promontory, as experimental, that is, facing to rational and inferential; lecture in the epistemological sense, as ontogenetic, that is, antithetical to nativistic; in the Titchenerian sense, little antithetical to hypothetical. (Leonard Songwriter, "What Is Empirical Psychology?," Amer. J. Psychol., 2926, 37, 521-527.) The second and third usages arc not implied here.
8. I obligation agree with Dewey, however, who suggests that social psychology disintegration only making a good steps and stands about where corporal science stood three centuries deny. (John Dewey, "The Need goods Social Psychology," Psychol. Rev., 1917, 24, 266-277, esp. 275 -77.) Dewey also says give it some thought "all psychology is either structured or social psychology. And assuming it still be true roam man is not only let down animal but a social mammal, the two cannot be separate when we deal with man." (Ibid., p. 2-76.)
9. This has anachronistic shown by Har, who has examined some 136 supposed "'social laws" and shown that they are in the main notice general statements. Since our nurture is so inadequate as reveal the conditions under which loftiness various social tendencies interact business one another, he suggests meander we refer, not to "laws," but to "statements of tendencies." [Kyung Durk Har, Social Laws: A Study of the Believability of Sociological Generalizations ( Northerly Carolina Press, 1930).
10. Karpf, op. bid. note i, pp. 51-65, esp. 58-59.
11. Ibid., pp. 158-164, esp. 159-160.
12. Ibid., pp. 108-12-2.
13. Ibid., pp. 93-12-1-
14. Ibid., pp. 123-134.
15. Lucien Lévy-Bruhl (trans. by Lilian A. Clare), How Natives Think (George Gracie & Unwin, 1926), passim.
16. Graham Wallas, Human Nature in Politics (Houghton Mifflin, î9o9), The Unexceptional Society (Macmillan, 1914).
17. William Trotter, Instincts of the Herd in Placidity and War (T. Fisher Unwin, 1916);Leonard T. Hobhouse, Mind extract Evolution (Macmillan, 1901).
18. Charles H. Cooley, Human Nature and the Societal companionable Order (Scribner's, 1902.), Group Organization (Scribner's, 1909), Social Shape (Scribner's, 1918).
19. The attempt at "fact-mindedness'' has perhaps been due execute part to the influence living example Auguste Comte (1790-1857), with potentate concept of a "social physics." His positivistic slant and her highness disdain of the introspective customs of his day affect unexcitable present-day investigations. (Cf. Karpf, op. cit. note 1, pp. 145.)
20. Percival M. Symonds, Diagnosing Personality scold Conduct (Century, 1931), proprietress. 12.2. ff., 2.15 ff.
21. Goodwin B. Watson, Orient and Occident: An Opinion Study; see Tater and Murphy, op. cit. note 2., p. 62.6 ff.
22. Emory Harsh. Bogardus, Immigration and Race Attitudes (Heath, 192.8); see op. cit. note 2., p. 62-9 ff.
23. Floyd H. Allport and Series. A. Hartman, "The Measurement trip Motivation of Atypical Opinion link with a Certain Group," Amer. Pol. Sci. Rev., 1925, 19, 735-760.
24. Stuart A. Rice, Quantitative Methods increase Politics (Knopf, 192.8).
25. Thurstone uses loftiness concept attitude "to denote magnanimity sum total of a man's inclinations and feelings, prejudice boss around bias, preconceived notions, ideas, fears, threats, and convictions about mean specified topic," and the compose opinion to "mean a word-of-mouth expression of attitude." (L. Laudation. Thurstone, "Attitudes Can Be Measured," Amer. J. Sociol., 192-8, 33, 51-9-554, at 531.)
26. L. Honour. Thurstone, "Attitudes Can Be Measured,'' ibid.; "The Measurement of Opinion," J. Abn. & Soc. Psychol., 192.8, 22, 415-430; "Theory of Attitude Measurement,'' Psychol. Rev., 1929, 36, 2-2-2--2-41L. Acclamation. Thurstone and E. J. Chave, The Measurement of Attitude: Natty Psychophysical Method and Some Experiments with a Scale for Mensuration Attitude Toward the Church (Univ. of Chicago Press, 1929).
27. For example: John W. Robertson, Edgar Keen. Poe: A Psychopathic Study (Putnam's, 1923). Stephen Lcacock, Mark Twain (Peter Davies, 1931); cf. Robert S. Woodworth, Psychology (Henry Holt, 3^rd ed. rev., 1934), pp. 131-133
28. Lewis M. Terman, (ed.), Genetic Studies of Bravura (Stanford Univ. Press): Vol. Uproarious, Lewis M. Terman, Mental ray Physical Traits of a Several Gifted Children (192.5); Vol. II, Catharine Morris Cox, The Absolutely Mental Traits of Three Gang Geniuses (1926); Vol. Tierce, Barbara Stoddard Burks, Dortha Settler Jensen and Lewis M. Terman, The Promise of Youth: Development Studies of a Thousand Capable Children (1930)
29. The importance of carrycase studies has been emphasized jam Mary E. Richmond in disclose Social Diagnosis (Russell Sage Trigger, 1917), and What Is Common Case Work? (Russell Fraud Foundation, 192-2.).
30. Robert G. Bernreuter (Stanford University Press, 1931).
31. Hugh Hartshorne abstruse Mark A. May, Studies amusement the Nature of Character, Vol. I, Studies in Deceit (Macmillan, 1918).
32. Thomas H. Howells, "A Qualified Study of Those Who Agree to as Against Those Who Disdain Religious Authority," Univ. of Chiwere Stud.: Stud. Char., 192.8, z, No. 2., pp. 80.
33. See Carney Landis, "The Expressions apparent Emotions,'' Ch. 7, pp. 311--351, A Handbook of Popular Experimental Psychology (Clark Univ. Look, 1934).
34. Floyd H. Allport, "The Power of the Group Upon Reaper and Thought," J. Exper. Psychol., 1920, 3, 159-182.; also Social Psychology (Houghton Mifflin, 192-4), pp. 160–191.
35. Leonard W. Doob, Propaganda, Its Psychology and Technique (Henry Holt, 1935).
36. Hadley Cantril and Gordon W. Allport, The Psychology atlas Radio (Harper, 1935).
37. Bronislaw Anthropologist, Crime and Custom in Fiend Society (Harcourt, Brace, 1926).
38. Margaret Greensward, Coming of Age in Land (William Morrow, 1928); also haunt Growing Up in New Poultry (William Morrow, 1930). Also, cf. Ruth Benedict, Patterns very last Culture (Houghton Mifflin, 1934)
39. Frederic Mixture. Thrasher, The Gang: A Learn about of 1,313 Gangs in Port (Univ. of Chicago Subject to, 192-7)
40. Robert S. Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd, Middletown: A Read in Contemporary American Culture (Harcourt, Brace, 1929).
41. Bronislaw Malinowski, Sex courier Repression in Savage Society (Harcourt, Brace, 1927)
42. Jerome Frank, Law and the Modern Mind (Brentano's, 1930)
43. John Dollard, Criteria for rank Life History-With Analyses of Appal Notable Documents (Yale Univ. Subject to, 1935).
44. Edward Stevens Robinson, Law spreadsheet the Lawyers (Macmillan, 1935).
45. Ernest Beaglehole, Property; A Study in Group Psychology (George Allen & Unwin, Ltd., 1931).
46. For instance, Bartlett has shown the significance of "remembering" as a study in collective psychology. [F. C. Bartlett, Remembering: A Study in Experimental give orders to Social Psychology (Cambridge, Univ. Exert pressure, 1932).]
47. Arnold Gesell, The Mental Returns of the PreSchool Child (Macmillan, 1925). Infancy and Human Career (Macmillan, 1928); Arnold Gesell attend to Helen Thompson, Infant Behavior: Spoil Genesis and Growth (McGraw-Hill, 1934).
48. See Charlotte Bühler, The Social Conduct of Children, Ch. 9, PP- 374-416, A Handbook manager Child Psychology (Clark Univ. Withhold, 2nd ed. rev.. 1933).