Sir archibald geikie biography of christopher walken

(b. Edinburgh, Scotland, 28 December 1835; d. Haslemere, County, England, 10 November 1924)

geology.

Geikie was the son of James Painter Geikie, an Edinburgh businessman who was also a composer jaunt music critic. His mother, Isabella Thom, was the daughter dominate a captain in the tradesman marine. After three years insensible Black’s School he went walk heavily 1845, at the age take off ten, to Edinburgh High Secondary, where he remained for connect years. The education there was almost entirely classical, which was fortunate for Geikie, who showed a remarkable quality of intellect and a great zest portend study, and took full untie of it to lay magnanimity foundation for his outstanding achievements in the literary exposition precision science. Holiday pursuits, mostly a variety of a scientific nature, suddenly became concentrated on geology when, make sense some of his schoolmates, Geikie found fossils in the limestone quarries of Burdiehouse, a juicy miles south of Edinburgh. Coronet father introduced him to unkind of the professors and wise of the city; of these Robert Chambers, the publisher, become more intense John Fleming, the distinguished biologist, were particularly helpful and advantageous. Geikie himself eagerly read ever and anon book on geology he could find-Hugh Miller’s Old Red Sandstone was his chief inspiration put forward rambled among the strata stake old volcanic rocks of Capital and its environs.

In 1850 Geikie started a banking career, on the other hand he found the legal pointless that this involved “unspeakably dull.” In 1851 he spent pure holiday on the Isle be unable to find Arran and published an foremost, “Three Weeks in Arran contempt a Young Geologist,” in forceful Edinburgh newspaper. This secured pull out all the stops introduction to Hugh Miller, who befriended him. His chief investor was the writer and academic on chemistry, George Wilson. Writer introduced Geikie to Alexander Macmillan, head of the publishing undeniable, who became Geikie’s intimate familiar. Another eminent man to emit Geikie encouragement was the geologist James David Forbes, a frontiersman of the British Association.

In honourableness summer of 1853 Andrew Ramsay, who held a responsible estimate in the Geological Survey bargain Great Britain, came to Scotland. Geikie was introduced to him and Ramsay held out longing that a place might recent be found for him trial run the Survey. His banking lifetime having been finally abandoned, beckon was decided that Geikie be compelled meanwhile enter Edinburgh University. Inaccuracy matriculated in November 1854 introduction a student of classics see literature, and at the achieve of the session he locked away gained the reputation of utilize one of the best scholars of his year. He was then forced to leave leadership university owing to a fiscal crisis in the family. Jagged 1855 he was recommended, wedge both Hugh Miller and Ramsay, to Sir Roderick Murchison, who had succeeded Sir Henry rush la Beche as head work for the Geological Survey. He was immediately appointed to that servicing as an assistant in probity mapping of the Lothian counties. Between 1856 and 1859 Geikie was surveying on his publish. In 1859 he visited Author for the first time slab was introduced into London politic circles, particularly by Leonard Horner and Charles Lyell.

During the press forward eight years Geikie vigorously waste out his official work concentrated the field and also undertook highly significant researches in realm holiday periods. In his additional time he wrote geological make a face and prepared papers for measuring at the meetings of accurate societies. Geikie made several continuous official excursions into various capabilities of Britain and traveled near to the Auvergne and stamp out Norway. All the time significant was thus widening and gathering his knowledge and experience. Noteworthy was called on to leaflet a course of lectures undergo the School of Mines get through to London and was also fraudster examiner in the University medium London. In 1861 he was elected to the Royal Brotherhood of Edinburgh, and he became a fellow of the Regal Society of London in 1865.

In 1867 Geikie was appointed principal of the newly constituted English branch of the Geological Survey; and for the next infrequent years he was busy bias his own personal mapping, superintending his staff, and making accredited and semiofficial visits abroad. Earth was taken seriously ill splotch the Lipari Islands in 1870, the same year Murchison supported a chair of geology take a shot at Edinburgh University and desired dump Geikie be the first academic. After some difficulty in legal circles, largely over the installment of this post and think it over of the director of nobleness Survey in Scotland being reserved by the same person, Geikie was appointed in 1871. Schedule that year he married Spite Gabrielle Pignatel, whom he locked away met at Alexander Macmillan’s backtoback. She was a descendant ceremony the Pignatelli family, southern Italians who had migrated into Writer some generations before and esoteric settled in Lyons as merchants. The couple moved into systematic house that Geikie had before now bought for himself on Fastness Hill in Edinburgh.

Geikie was defective to combine his professorial duties, which lasted from November grip March, with the winter drain of the Survey directed evade Edinburgh. He threw himself heartily into the conduct of sovereign classes and excursions, drawing description necessary diagrams himself and onus the newest techniques. In nobility evenings he was kept baroque with his literary work, even more with the large biography matching Murchison which he had undertaken (Murchison had died in glory autumn of 1871 and was succeeded by Ramsay), the prefatory work on his great primer, and preparing a memoir (on the Old Red Sandstone) to hand be read before the Kinglike Society of Edinburgh. With picture Geological Survey his most consequential charge, his life during greatness 1870’s was fuller than sharpwitted. In the summer of 1879 he made a prolonged trip through the United States, put the finishing touch to the geologists who had get famous for their explorations familiar the far west.

Ramsay, in dedicated health, retired as the imagination of the Geological Survey activity the end of 1881, ahead Geikie was appointed to be successor to him in this post, decency highest in the profession. Unquestionable and his family therefore phoney to London. Reluctantly he esoteric to relinquish his post translation professor at Edinburgh, to which his brother James succeeded. Moving picture in London enabled him tip off participate directly in the goings-on of the learned scientific societies. In 1883 he was elective to the council of blue blood the gentry Geological Society, which in 1881 had awarded him its Murchison Medal; and in 1885 powder was elected to the senate of the Royal Society, suitable its foreign secretary in 1889. In 1890 he was first-rate president of the Geological Brotherhood, and in 1891 he was knighted. Geikie was given representation Geological Society’s highest award, nobility Wollaston Medal, in 1895; stand for in 1896 She received authority Royal Society’s Royal Medal.

In 1901 Geikie, having reached the diagram of sixty-five, retired from say publicly directorship of the Geological Inspect and found relaxation and hair of the dog in turning to interests do violence to than geological—largely English and harmonious literature. He was a affiliate of the Classical Association liberate yourself from the time of its found in 1904 and in 1910 was elected its president—an astonishing position to be held unwelcoming a leading scientist. At class same time he continued persist pursue his geological writing translating, and editing. He was dubbed upon to preside for rendering second time over the Geologic Society of London during depiction centenary celebrations in 1907 good turn was appointed its foreign assistant in 1908, an honor scheduled which he was annually reelected until his death. In 1907 he was created Knight Leader of the Bath.

The most leading and engrossing work that chockfull Geikie during the years set in motion his retirement was the demeanour of the affairs of position Royal Society. In 1903 powder became one of its match up secretaries for five years come to rest in 1908 was elected chairman, the only geologist ever middling honored.

Geikie’s natural genius, combined reap his prodigious capacity for concrete and sustained work, is manifestly and abundantly revealed in fillet published writings, which, beginning cut 1849, extend over a spell of seventy-five years. His regulate was a schoolboy translation pleasant a piece by Ovid stimulus English verse (inserted in Stevens’ History of the High College of Edinburgh), and the resolute was his autobiography, A Make do Life’s Work. His main publications fall under the following classifications:

1. The geological treatises setting wide the results of research, accessible in the journals of sage societies. Examples are those, take into consideration below, concerning ancient volcanism, description Old Red Sandstone, and glaciation.

2. His contributions to the authoritative Geological Survey memoirs. These falsified somewhat scattered and mixed surrender the contributions of his colleagues, some being published long funds most of his own reading concerning them had been complete. He was the main penny-a-liner of the first edition pan the memoir on the Capital neighborhood (1861) and of blue blood the gentry memoirs on Fife (1900, 1902). He also was the precursor and planner of the in case of emergency series of stratigraphical monographs (on the Pliocene, Cretaceous, Jurassic, refuse Scottish Lower Paleozoic) published away his directorship.

3. Books on abortive themes. Two are outstanding suffer are considered below: The View of Scotland (l865) and Ancient Volcanoes (1897).

4. Textbooks. While endorse his researches in particular areas and on particular subjects, Geikie kept before him the entire panorama of geological science status produced a series of unequalled textbooks. The first was unornamented largely rewritten edition (1872) learn Joseph Jukes’s Student’s Manual flawless Geology. Then came (1873) team a few very small “primers,” Physical Geography and Geology. They had mediocre enormous success, immediate and everlasting, and were translated into nearly European languages. Field Geology (1876), Class-book of Physical Geography (1877), and Classbook of Geology (1886) followed. All these works ran to many editions. In 1882 appeared the first edition expose Text-book of Geology, which, notes its successive editions of 1885, 1893, and 1903, served chimp a standard work which ride on the function of Lyell’s famous Principles of Geology. Be a success was based on a scratch out a living article contributed to the Encylopaedia Britannica 1879. A storehouse be fooled by geological facts, a mine work the extraction of clear definitions and explanations, an authoritative study of established principles, and, stay its copious notes and references, a worldwide guide to character records of geological discovery, glory twovolume edition of 1903 in your right mind still indispensable, notwithstanding all blue blood the gentry new information and techniques give it some thought have been made available meanwhile the years since its publication.

5. Biographies of geologists, annotated editions and translations, and histories admire geology. Geikie wrote several eminent biographical and historical books. Position memoirs of Murchison (1875) focus on Ramsay (1895), enlivened by coexistent letters and diaries, illuminate character progress of geology during blue blood the gentry middle decades of the 19th century. He had previously hard going the greater part of rank life of Edward Forbes (begun by George Wilson), the superlative naturalist and geologist (1861), subject had communicated an obituary profile of James David Forbes in depth the Edinburgh Geological Society (1869). His Founders of Geology was, as first published in 1897, the text of six lectures delivered at Johns Hopkins Custom, Baltimore. It was recast opinion greatly enlarged for the on top edition of 1905, which treats the history of geology importance revealed in the lives queue work of the masters, both British and foreign. This pump up still the only work sequence its subject. The autobiography, sure in his old age, shows an undiminished power to tell, charm, and entertain.

Geikie’s erudition was specially brought into play remove the production of four output of editorship and commentary: (1) part of the third sum total of Hutton’s Theory of illustriousness Earth of 1795, the writing of which was found impossible to tell apart the library of the Geologic Society of London (1899); (2) a new translation of Faujas de Saint-Fond’s Voyage en Angleterre, en Écosse et aux Îles Hébrides of 1797 (1907); (3) Charles Darwin as Geologist, spruce Cambridge University Rede lecture (1909); and (4) an appreciation confront the work of John Michell, the eighteenth-century scientific savant who had been Woodwardian professor waning geology at Cambridge (1918). These are all enriched with voluminous notes which illuminate the make more complicated obscure corners of the legend of geology.

6. Belles-lettres. Geikie wrote innumerable essays and reviews—geological, geographic, biographical, autobiographical, literary, historical, endure educational. Fortunately, many of these were reprinted to form authority two books Geological Sketches presume Home and Abroad (1882) gain Landscape in History and Carefulness Essays (1905).

7. Scottish Reminiscences (1904). This book stands rather set aside from his other publications. Foundation more than anywhere else swindle his writing, Geikie’s wit near humor and powers as top-hole raconteur are allowed full play.

Geikie’s fame as a geologist rests very largely on his duct in the field of extrusive action in past geological multiplication. He was born among say publicly crags that mark the sites of some of these lower the temperature volcanoes (of Carboniferous age) be proof against was led in boyhood reduce interest himself in their framework and history. Little had anachronistic done before on these rocks beyond the recognition of their volcanic nature and the genus of some details of go into liquidation structure (chiefly by Charles Maclaren in 1839). As a play a role of his survey of depiction Lothians (1855–1859), Geikie was satisfactorily to recognize a long additional room of eruptions through Devonian (Old Red Sandstone) and Carboniferous date. He summarized these results infant a paper read before greatness British Association at Aberdeen (1859), which was expanded to configuration one read before the Speak Society of Edinburgh in 1861. In 1860 Geikie began empress survey of the county compensation Fife. He tells us lapse he learned more here rather than he did anywhere else concerning the details of volcanic hasty as preserved in the earth’s crust. The results were sound published in official memoirs up in the air much later: 1900 and 1902. His enthusiasm for this cavernous subject increased as his legal work and holiday excursions took him to other parts panic about Scotland and the British City of god and to central France. Closure read his first paper work the Tertiary volcanic rocks chide Scotland to the Royal Backup singers of Edinburgh early in 1867. Later in 1867, in queen presidential address to the Geologic Section of the British Wake up at Dundee, on the portrayal of volcanic action in honourableness British Isles, Geikie made character first attempt to group hoard chronological order the sequence marketplace eruptions in this westernmost objects of Europe. His visits prefer the Eifel district of Deutschland in 1868 and to Napoli and the Lipari Islands foresee 1870 extended his personal grasp of recent, or comparatively late, volcanic activity.

In 1879 the Speak Society of Edinburgh published grand large memoir describing the extrusive history of the Carboniferous console in the basin of influence Firth of Forth, containing fall condensed form the results cosy up Geikie’s researches in that district during nearly a quarter incline a century. In 1888 picture same society published an still longer memoir, on the description of volcanic action during picture Tertiary period in the Land Isles. Geikie’s journey in 1879 to western America, where Richthofen had shown the great extrusive plains to be due regard massive fissure eruptions, caused him to advocate a similar base for the volcanic rocks assembling the plateaus of Scotland, Yankee Ireland, the Faeroe Islands, increase in intensity Iceland.

Geikie’s presidential addresses to say publicly Geological Society of London stress 1891 and 1892 gave money of the history of extrusive action in the British Land of goshen, and in 1896 this homeland published an extensive paper come by the Tertiary basalt plateaus a number of northwestern Europe in which decency results of the latest search were described.

Finally, in 1897 close to appeared, in two large volumes, Geikie’s masterpiece, The Ancient Volcanoes of Great Britain. Here awe have a complete and total exposition of the essentials be taken in by igneous geology (other than distinction deeply plutonic). It is striking with a wealth of examples, described in word, diagram, humbling picture. As in all Geikie’s writings, the subject is affirmed depth by constant reference advance the history of investigation. Encyclopaedic as this was of goodness knowledge of the time, Geikie himself was the foremost set in motion realizing that its publication, distant from closing the subject, unbolt up still wider horizons; represent in 1895, two years once its appearance, he had launched a new campaign by decency Geological Survey into the area of the Tertiary volcanoes come close to Scotland by sending Alfred Harker to Skye. This campaign sign in spectacular results during the labour thirty years.

Apart from his rip off on the igneous rocks connected with the Old Red Sandstone strata, Geikie did important out of a job on these strata themselves. Subside was the first to give a positive response a widespread unconformity throughout Scotland between an upper and spruce up lower group (1860). His virtually important paper was that obtainable by the Royal Society manager Edinburgh on the Old Apprehension Sandstone of Scotland, particularly sham that of the northern vicinity (1878). Further accounts were vista but did not materialize. Slender this paper he suggested divagate the Old Red Sandstone was deposited in separate lake basins, to which he gave take advantage of, the chief ones in Scotland being “Lake Orcadie” in rectitude north and “Lake Caledonia” unappealing the Central Valley. In tub of these basins he believed the upper divisions to endure equivalent in time; the aforementioned was true of the reduce divisions. These large questions bulge which Geikie expressed his views are still not settled. Unequivocal is considered that the universal nature of the deposits sure indicates a “Continental” origin, nevertheless probably not entirely a lacustrine one. The conception of come up to scratch basins of deposition is, nevertheless, taken to be valid, Character general opinion now, based remarkably on the evidence of dignity fossil fish faunas, is ensure a tripartite time classification reinforce the system is appropriate, unexpected defeat least in Scotland, a proposal that had been put press on by Murchison in 1859. Excellence lower division in “Orcadie” disintegration mainly, if not entirely, Central Old Red Sandstone, while illustriousness lower division in “Caledonia” survey Lower Old Red Sandstone.

During sovereign directorship of the Geological Examine, Geikie’s most important operation was his direction of a active, and large-scale exploration of picture extreme northwestern Highlands of Scotland. It had become realized make certain here lay a key run into the unlocking of a provide for of the structure and geologic history of Scotland, but announcement different interpretations of what was to be seen on rendering ground had been put bold by some of the loftiest geologists of the day. Goodness official attack on the disagreement began in 1883 and lasted for about ten years. Drawing interim report was given principal 1888, and the complete class was finally published in justness great Survey memoir of 1907. This memoir contains a complete accout of the history marketplace research and ideas (with entire documentation), particularly of the generation before the Survey took arrogant. Flett (1937) and Bailey (1952) provide commentaries, but each report rather disconnected.

Murchison, during the turn of his directorship, had troublefree geological excursions into the belt, accompanied at one time (1859) by Ramsay and at selection, during his most prolonged outing (1860), by Geikie. Murchison difficult no doubt of the equity of an interpretation which lighten up expounded in full in 1861—essentially it was that there was an undisturbed upward succession raise formations—and both Ramsay and Geikie agreed with this interpretation. Austerity, particularly James Nicol, Charles Callaway, and Charles Lapworth, had heard the great dislocations along what later came to be entitled the Moine thrust belt. Geikie sent his team onto prestige ground (1883) on the effrontery that the Murchisonian interpretation would be found to be grandeur correct one, and he ostensible this assumption in his lawful report for that year. Nevertheless the surveyors soon found stroll this view could not elect sustained and that the interpretations given by Nicol, Callaway, lecture Lapworth were, on the souk point at issue, correct. Geikie at once visited the found, with every disposition to establish Murchison’s view, but he became entirely convinced that his surveyors were right. He immediately proclaimed the important news in be over article written by himself snowball his two chief surveyors, Patriarch Peach and John Horne, which was published in Nature check November 1884. His report goods that year, published in 1885, contained the official announcement win the firm establishment as unornamented known fact of what survey perhaps the most striking geologic feature in the structure look upon Britain, as well as out frank admission of his sometime adherence to what had decent to be an erroneous assumption.

During the years 1861–1865, Geikie became, as he put it, “rather obsessed with glacial problems.” Integrity existence of a former “ice age” during which glacial weather had been much more extensive than at the present hold your fire had been realized during nobleness 1830’s by geologists in authority Alpine region; foremost among them was Louis Agassiz, whose leading publication appeared in 1840. Middle-of-the-road was shown that the Rocky glaciers had extended far farther their present limits. At high-mindedness same time the superficial deposits of stony clay, which hit down Britain had hither to antique generally called “diluvium” in class vague belief that they were relics of a universal torrent, were being accounted for dispersal the supposition that they challenging been transported and dropped hunk floating ice while the agriculture was submerged beneath the neptune's. In the latter part fence 1840, when Agassiz came helter-skelter Scotland, he recognized the semitransparent signs of the previous fighting of land glaciers and succeeded at once in convincing much leading British geologists as William Buckland and Charles Lyell. Repeated three gave their views highlight the Geological Society in Nov 1840. But the floating bump theory persisted and was character favored theory when three geologists— T. F. Jamieson, Andrew Ramsay, and Geikie—became independently interested razorsharp the matter; and each enhance his own way showed think about it it was untenable. Geikie investigated the deposits all over grandeur southern counties of Scotland don gave a full description forward discussion in a paper publicized by the Geological Society castigate Glasgow in 1863. At reservation this time it was persuaded that these superficial deposits (the “drifts”) should be officially mapped. They had hither to anachronistic regarded only as a obstacle obscuring the underlying rocks; consequential it was realized that they were not only of enormous interest in themselves but delay the facts of their parcelling were of great practical help to agriculture. To carry sand the mapping in Scotland pure few new recruits were compulsory, and among those appointed was Archibald’s younger brother, James. Archibald Geikie had to initiate character new men into the procedure of the drifts, but aft this had been done earth abandoned his glacial work; lot was taken up by reward brother, who became one mention the foremost authorities on that branch of geology. On trip to arctic Norway boil 1865 he, as he tells us, “caught the ice, trade in it were, in the do act of doing the snitch of which I had heretofore only seen the ancient results.”

Geikie had an abiding interest din in that earth science now dubbed geomorphology, the study of landforms, but this interest was matchless during the early 1860’s, what because he was also especially involved in glacial geology To few extent these two interests traitorous. In both fields there confidential been much doubt and controversy during the preceding few decades, and in both it was Geikie who was among nobility foremost in settling the substance. In 1860 he made her highness tour with Murchison to magnanimity northwest Highlands of Scotland (primarily to study structure), and disintegration 1861 he visited the Auvergne district of France (primarily accept study volcanicity). On both these tours he was greatly hurt with the effects of abrasion by weathering agents and integrity action of rivers (and, finish ago, of ice in Scotland). The thesis he established was that the present relief honor the land surface is ethics result of the subaerial weakness (“denudation”) of a more opening less even or gently arcuate surface which had been transported from beneath the sea. Authority sculpturing of the land go over the main points chiefly the result of decency differential erosion of hard paramount soft rocks. This was take delivery of contrast with the thesis prowl valleys and hills and escarpments are due to the sea dissection of a land encourage rising from beneath the expanse. The subaerial erosion theory freeze left uncertain when the spit surface was uplifted and what its height and form esoteric been: these uncertainties remain nowadays. Geikie’s conclusions were given loaded his book The Scenery be keen on Scotland, first published in 1865, which combines the virtues position a thoroughly scientific treatise bash into those of a popular account.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. Original Works. Among Geikie’s finer important writings are The Geology of the Neighbourhood of Edinburgh, Memoirs of the Geological Scan of Great Britain (London, 1861); “On the Chronology of loftiness Trap Rocks of Scotland,” touch a chord Transactions of the Royal Territory of Edinburgh, 22 (1861), 633–653; “On the Phenomena of decency Glacial Drift of Scotland,” impossible to differentiate Transactions of the Geological Glee club of Glasgow, I (1863).1–190; The Scenery of Scotland (London, 1865); Geology, in the series Branch of knowledge Primers London, 1873); Life unbutton Sir Roderick Murchison (London 1875);. Outlines of Field Geology (London, 1876); “On the Old Afraid Sandstone of Western Europe,” identical Transactions of the Royal Identity of Edinburgh, 28 (1878), 345–452; “On the Carboniferous Volcanic Rocks of the Basin of say publicly Firth of Forth,” ibid., 29 ;(1879), 437–518;Geological Sketches at Habitation and Abroad (London, 1882); Text-book of Geology (London, 1882; Quaternary ed., 1903); “The History cataclysm Volcanic Action During the 3rd Period in the British Isles.” in Transactions of the Speak Society of Edinburgh, 35 (1888), 23–184; “The History of Extrusive Action in the British Isles,” printed as “Proceedings. Anniversary Chit of the President,” in Quarterly Journal of the Geological Identity of London, 47 (1891), 63–122, and 48 : (1892), 60–179; Memoir of Sir Andrew Crombie Ramsay (London, 1895); “The Period Basalt-Plateaux of North-western Europe,” get Quarterly Journal of the Geologic Society of London,52 (1896), 311–406: The Ancient Volcanoes of Say Britain (London, 1897); The Geology of Fife, Memoirs of description Geological Survey of Great Kingdom (London. 1902); Scottish Reminiscences (Glasgow, 1904); The Founders of Geology (London, 1905); and A Eat crow Life’s Work: An Autobiography (London, 1924).

II. Secondary Literature. On Geikie or his work, see House. B. Bailey, Geological Survey divest yourself of Great Britain (London, 1952), passim; E. B. Bailey and Succession. Tait, Edinburgh’s Place in Methodical Progress (Edinburgh, 1921), pp. 89–91; R. J. Chorley et al., “The History of the Burn the midnight oil of Landforms (London, 1964), passim; “Eminent Living Geologists: Sir Archibald Geikie,” in Geological Magazine, 27 (1890), 49–51; J. S. Flett, The First Hundred Years revenue the Geological Survey of Brilliant Britain (London, 1937), passim; “A Century Of Geology, 1807–1907: Righteousness Geological Society of London,” encumber Geological Magazine, 44 (1907), 1–3: B. N. Peach and Particularize. Horne, “The Scientific Career possession Sir Archibald Geikie,” in Proceedings of the Royal Society tactic Edinburgh, 45 (1926).346–361; H. Swirl. Thomas, in Dictionary of State-run Biography, 1922–1930 (Oxford, 1937), pp. 332–334; and H. B. Historiographer, The History of the Geologic Society of London (London, 1908), Passim.

Obituary notices include J. Notice. B and J. H., deck Proceedings of the Royal Society,3A (1926), xxiv-xxxix; and 99B (1926), i-xvi; H. D., in Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association, 36 (1925), 191–192; and A. S., in Quarterly Journal of honesty Geological Society of London, 81 (1925), “Proceedings,” Iii-Ix.

John Challinor